Epilepsy (from the Ancient Greek Ancient Greek is the historical stage in the development of the Greek language spanning the Archaic , Classical (c. 5th–4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic (c. 3rd century BC – 6th century AD) periods of ancient Greece and the ancient world. It is predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek. Its Hellenistic phase is known as Koine (& ἐπιληψία (epilēpsía) — "to seize") is a common chronic In medicine, a chronic disease is a disease that is long-lasting or recurrent. The term chronic describes the course of the disease, or its rate of onset and development. A chronic course is distinguished from a recurrent course; recurrent diseases relapse repeatedly, with periods of remission in between. As an adjective, chronic can refer to a neurological disorder A neurological disorder is a disorder of the body's nervous system. Structural, biochemical or electrical abnormalities in the brain or spinal cord, or in the nerves leading to or from them, can result in symptoms such as paralysis, muscle weakness, poor coordination, loss of sensation, seizures, confusion, pain and altered levels of consciousness characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures An epileptic seizure, occasionally referred to as a fit, is defined as a transient symptom of "abnormal excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain". The outward effect can be as dramatic as a wild thrashing movement or as mild as a brief loss of awareness. It can manifest as an alteration in mental state, tonic or clonic.^[1][2] These seizures are transient signs and/or symptoms of abnormal, excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain.^[3] About 50 million people worldwide have epilepsy, with almost 90% of these people being in developing countries.^[4] Epilepsy is more likely to occur in young children, or people over the age of 65 years, however it can occur at any time.^[5] As a consequence of brain surgery epileptic seizures may occur in recovering patients.

Epilepsy is usually controlled, but cannot be cured with medication, although surgery Surgery is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate and/or treat a pathological condition such as disease or injury, to help improve bodily function or appearance, and sometimes for religious reasons. An act of performing surgery may be called a surgical procedure, operation, or simply may be considered in difficult cases. However, over 30% of people with epilepsy do not have seizure control even with the best available medications.^[6][7] Not all epilepsy syndromes are lifelong – some forms are confined to particular stages of childhood. Epilepsy should not be understood as a single disorder, but rather as syndromic with vastly divergent symptoms but all involving episodic abnormal electrical activity in the brain.

Contents 1 Classification 1.1 Seizure types 1.2 Epilepsy syndromes 2 Causes 3 Pathophysiology 4 Management 4.1 Responding to a seizure 4.2 Pharmacologic treatment 4.3 Surgical treatment 4.4 Other treatment 5 Epidemiology 6 History 7 Society and culture 7.1 Legal implications 7.2 Notable people with epilepsy 8 Research 8.1 Important investigators of epilepsy 9 See also 10 References 11 External links

Classification

Main article: Seizure types The numerous epileptic seizure types are most commonly defined and grouped according to a scheme proposed by the International League Against Epilepsy in 1981. Distinguishing between seizure types is important since different types of seizure may have different causes, prognosis and treatments

Epilepsies are classified in five ways:

1. By their first cause (or etiology Etiology is the study of causation, or origination. The word is derived from the Greek αἰτιολογία, aitiologia, "giving a reason for" (αἰτία, aitia, "cause"; and -λογία, -logia)).
2. By the observable manifestations of the seizures, known as semiology.
3. By the location in the brain where the seizures originate.
4. As a part of discrete, identifiable medical syndromes In medicine and psychology, a syndrome is the association of several clinically recognizable features, signs , symptoms (reported by the patient), phenomena or characteristics that often occur together, so that the presence of one feature alerts the physician to the presence of the others. In recent decades, the term has been used outside medicine.
5. By the event that triggers the seizures, as in primary reading epilepsy or musicogenic epilepsy.

In 1981, the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) proposed a classification scheme for individual seizures that remains in common use.^[8] This classification is based on observation (clinical and EEG) rather than the underlying pathophysiology or anatomy and is outlined later on in this article. In 1989, the ILAE proposed a classification scheme for epilepsies and epileptic syndromes.^[9] This can be broadly described as a two-axis scheme having the cause on one axis and the extent of localization within the brain on the other. Since 1997, the ILAE have been working on a new scheme that has five axes:

1. ictal phenomenon,(pertaining to an epileptic seizure)

2. seizure type,

3. syndrome,

4. etiology,

5. impairment. ^[10]

Seizure types

Seizure types are organized firstly according to whether the source of the seizure within the brain is localized (partial or focal A simple partial seizure will often be a precursor to a larger seizure such as a complex partial seizure, or a tonic-clonic seizure. When this is the case, the simple partial seizure is usually called an aura onset seizures) or distributed (generalized seizures). Partial seizures are further divided on the extent to which consciousness is affected. If it is unaffected, then it is a simple partial Simple partial seizures are seizures which affect only a small region of the brain, often the temporal lobes and/or hippocampi. People who have simple partial seizures retain consciousness. Simple partial seizures are often precursors to larger seizures, where the abnormal electrical activity spreads to a larger area of the brain, usually seizure; otherwise it is a complex partial A complex partial seizure is an epileptic seizure that is limited to one cerebral hemisphere and causes impairment of awareness or responsiveness (psychomotor) seizure. A partial seizure may spread within the brain - a process known as secondary generalization. Generalized seizures are divided according to the effect on the body but all involve loss of consciousness. These include absence Absence seizures are one of several kinds of seizures. These seizures are sometimes referred to as petit mal seizures (petit mal), myoclonic Myoclonus is brief, involuntary twitching of a muscle or a group of muscles. It describes a medical sign and, generally, is not a diagnosis of a disease. The myoclonic twitches are usually caused by sudden muscle contractions; they also can result from brief lapses of contraction. Contractions are called positive myoclonus; relaxations are called, clonic Clonus is a series of involuntary muscular contractions due to sudden stretching of the muscle. Clonus is a sign of certain neurological conditions, and is particularly associated with upper motor neuron lesions such as in stroke, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord damage and hepatic encephalopathy. Unlike the small, spontaneous twitching known as, tonic, tonic-clonic Tonic–clonic seizures are a type of generalized seizure that affects the entire brain. Tonic–clonic seizures are the seizure type most commonly associated with epilepsy and seizures in general, though it is a misconception that they are the only type. (See seizure types) (grand mal) and atonic Atonic seizures , are a minor type of seizure. They consist of a brief lapse in muscle tone that are caused by temporary alterations in brain function. The seizures are brief - usually less than fifteen seconds. They begin in childhood and may persist into adulthood. The seizure itself causes no damage, but the loss of muscle control can result in seizures.

Children may exhibit behaviors that are easily mistaken for epileptic seizures but are not caused by epilepsy. These include:

• Inattentive staring
• Benign shudders (among children younger than age 2, usually when they are tired or excited)
• Self-gratification behaviors (nodding, rocking, head banging)
• Conversion disorder Conversion disorder is a condition where patients present with neurological symptoms such as numbness, paralysis, or fits, but where positive physical signs of hysteria can be found. It is thought that these problems arise in response to difficulties in the patient's life, and conversion is considered a psychiatric disorder in the International (flailing and jerking of the head, often in response to severe personal stress such as physical abuse)

Conversion disorder can be distinguished from epilepsy because the episodes never occur during sleep and do not involve incontinence or self-injury.^[11]

Epilepsy syndromes

There are over 40 different types of epilepsy, including: Absence seizures Absence seizures are one of several kinds of seizures. These seizures are sometimes referred to as petit mal seizures, atonic seizures, benign Rolandic epilepsy, childhood absence, clonic seizures, complex partial seizures A complex partial seizure is an epileptic seizure that is limited to one cerebral hemisphere and causes impairment of awareness or responsiveness, frontal lobe epilepsy Frontal lobe epilepsy is the second most common type of epilepsy, after temporal lobe epilepsy. It is similar to temporal lobe epilepsy because it is a type of focal seizure, which means that the seizure starts in a focal area of the brain, commonly referred to as the focus. Frontal lobe epilepsy refers to cases in which the focus is located in, Febrile seizures, Infantile spasms, Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy, Juvenile Absence Epilepsy, Hot Water Epilepsy, Lennox-Gastaut syndrome Lennox-Gastaut syndrome , also known as Lennox syndrome, is a difficult-to-treat form of childhood-onset epilepsy that most often appears between the second and sixth year of life, and is characterized by frequent seizures and different seizure types; it is often accompanied by mental retardation and behavior problems, Landau-Kleffner syndrome Landau–Kleffner syndrome , also called infantile acquired aphasia, acquired epileptic aphasia or aphasia with convulsive disorder, is a rare, childhood neurological syndrome , myoclonic seizures, Mitochondrial Disorders, Progressive Myoclonic Epilepsies, Psychogenic Seizures , Reflex Epilepsy, Rasmussen's Syndrome, Simple Partial seizures, Secondarily Generalized Seizures, Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Temporal lobe epilepsy is a form of focal epilepsy, a chronic neurological condition characterized by recurrent seizures. While focal epilepsy accounts for about 50% of all epilepsy cases, the prevalence of temporal lobe epilepsy among these cases remains uncertain, Tonic-clonic seizures, Tonic seizures, Psychomotor Seizures, Limbic Epilepsy, Partial-Onset Seizures, generalised-onset seizures, Status Epilepticus, Abdominal Epilepsy, Akinetic Seizures, Autonomic seizures, Massive Bilateral Myoclonus, Catamenial epilepsy Catamenial epilepsy is a subtype of epilepsy, which is a chronic neurological condition characterized by recurrent seizures. Catamenial epilepsy is a subset of this population, which includes women of whom their seizure exacerbation is aligned with their menstrual cycle. Women with catamenial epilepsy are unusually sensitive to endogenous hormonal, Drop seizures, Emotional seizures, Focal seizures A simple partial seizure will often be a precursor to a larger seizure such as a complex partial seizure, or a tonic-clonic seizure. When this is the case, the simple partial seizure is usually called an aura, Gelastic seizures, Jacksonian March, Lafora Disease, Motor seizures, Multifocal seizures, Neonatal seizures, Nocturnal seizures, Photosensitive epilepsy Photosensitive epilepsy is a form of epilepsy in which seizures are triggered by visual stimuli that form patterns in time or space, such as flashing lights, bold, regular patterns, or regular moving patterns, Pseudo seizures, Sensory seizures, Subtle seizures, Sylvan Seizures, Withdrawal seizures, Visual Reflex Seizures amongst others.^[12]

Each type of epilepsy presents with its own unique combination of seizure type, typical age of onset, EEG findings, treatment, and prognosis. The most widespread classification of the epilepsies ^[9] divides epilepsy syndromes by location or distribution of seizures (as revealed by the appearance of the seizures and by EEG Electroencephalography is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp produced by the firing of neurons within the brain. In clinical contexts, EEG refers to the recording of the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of time, usually 20–40 minutes, as recorded from multiple electrodes placed on the scalp. In) and by cause. Syndromes are divided into localization-related epilepsies, generalized epilepsies, or epilepsies of unknown localization.

Localization-related epilepsies, sometimes termed partial or focal epilepsies, arise from an epileptic focus, a small portion of the brain that serves as the irritant driving the epileptic response. Generalized epilepsies, in contrast, arise from many independent foci (multifocal epilepsies) or from epileptic circuits that involve the whole brain. Epilepsies of unknown localization remain unclear whether they arise from a portion of the brain or from more widespread circuits.

Epilepsy syndromes are further divided by presumptive cause: idiopathic, symptomatic, and cryptogenic. Idiopathic epilepsies are generally thought to arise from genetic abnormalities that lead to alteration of basic neuronal regulation. Symptomatic epilepsies arise from the effects of an epileptic lesion, whether that lesion is focal, such as a tumor, or a defect in metabolism causing widespread injury to the brain. Cryptogenic epilepsies involve a presumptive lesion that is otherwise difficult or impossible to uncover during evaluation.

The genetic component to epilepsy is receiving particular interest from the scientific community. Conditions such as Ring chromosome 20 syndrome (r(20))are gaining acknowledgment, and although only 60 cases have been reported in the literature since 1976, "more widespread cytogenetic chromosomal karyotyping in non-etiological cases of epilepsy" is likely. http://www.ring20.org/what-is-r20.php

Some epileptic syndromes are difficult to fit within this classification scheme and fall in the unknown localization/etiology category. People who only have had a single seizure, or those with seizures that occur only after specific precipitants ("provoked seizures"), have "epilepsies" that fall into this category. Febrile convulsions A febrile seizure, also known as a fever fit or febrile convulsion is a convulsion triggered by a rise in body temperature. They most commonly occur in children between the ages of 6 months and 3 years and are twice as common in boys than girls. The direct cause of a febrile seizure is not known; however, it is normally precipitated by a recent are an example of seizures bound to a particular precipitant. Landau-Kleffner syndrome Landau–Kleffner syndrome , also called infantile acquired aphasia, acquired epileptic aphasia or aphasia with convulsive disorder, is a rare, childhood neurological syndrome is another epilepsy which, because of its variety of EEG Electroencephalography is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp produced by the firing of neurons within the brain. In clinical contexts, EEG refers to the recording of the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of time, usually 20–40 minutes, as recorded from multiple electrodes placed on the scalp. In distributions, falls uneasily in clear categories. More confusingly, certain syndromes like West syndrome West syndrome is an uncommon to rare and serious form of infantile spasms . It is named after the English physician, William James West (1793-1848), who first described it in an article published in The Lancet in 1841. Other names for it are "Generalized Flexion Epilepsy", "Infantile Epileptic Encephalopathy", "Infantile featuring seizures such as Infantile spasms can be classified as idiopathic, syndromic, or cryptogenic depending on cause and can arise from both focal or generalized epileptic lesions.

Below are some common seizure syndromes:

• Autosomal dominant nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy Autosomal dominant nocturnal frontal lobe epilepsy is a rare epileptic disorder that causes frequent violent seizures during sleep. These seizures often involve complex motor movements, such as hand clenching, arm raising/lowering, and knee bending. Vocalizations such as shouting, moaning, or crying are also common. ADNFLE is often misdiagnosed as (ADNFLE) is an idiopathic localization-related epilepsy that is an inherited epileptic disorder that causes seizures during sleep. Onset is usually in childhood. These seizures arise from the frontal lobes and consist of complex motor movements, such as hand clenching, arm raising/lowering, and knee bending. Vocalizations such as shouting, moaning, or crying are also common. ADNFLE is often misdiagnosed as nightmares. ADNFLE has a genetic basis^[13]. These genes encode various nicotinic acetylcholine receptors Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, or nAChRs, are cholinergic receptors that form ligand-gated ion channels in the plasma membranes of certain neurons and on the postsynaptic side of the neuromuscular junction . Being ionotropic receptors, nAChRs are directly linked to an ion channel and do not make use of a second messenger as metabotropic.

• Benign centrotemporal lobe epilepsy of childhood or Benign rolandic epilepsy Benign rolandic epilepsy is characterized by either simple partial seizures involving the mouth and face or generalized tonic-clonic seizures. There can be one-sided somatosensory manifestations such as tingling of one side of the tongue, speech arrest (anarthria), gurgling or grunting noises or drooling. Seizures tend to occur more often during is an idiopathic localization-related epilepsy that occurs in children between the ages of 3 and 13 years with peak onset in prepubertal late childhood. Apart from their seizure disorder, these patients are otherwise normal. This syndrome features simple partial seizures that involve facial muscles and frequently cause drooling. Although most episodes are brief, seizures sometimes spread and generalize. Seizures are typically nocturnal and confined to sleep. The EEG Electroencephalography is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp produced by the firing of neurons within the brain. In clinical contexts, EEG refers to the recording of the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of time, usually 20–40 minutes, as recorded from multiple electrodes placed on the scalp. In may demonstrate spike discharges that occur over the centrotemporal scalp over the central sulcus of the brain (the Rolandic sulcus) that are predisposed to occur during drowsiness or light sleep. Seizures cease near puberty.^[14] Seizures may require anticonvulsant The anticonvulsants are a diverse group of pharmaceuticals used in the treatment of epileptic seizures. Anticonvulsants are also increasingly being used in the treatment of bipolar disorder, since many seem to act as mood stabilizers. The goal of an anticonvulsant is to suppress the rapid and excessive firing of neurons that start a seizure treatment, but sometimes are infrequent enough to allow physicians to defer treatment.

• Benign occipital epilepsy of childhood (BOEC) is an idiopathic localization-related epilepsy and consists of an evolving group of syndromes. Most authorities include two subtypes, an early subtype with onset between 3–5 years and a late onset between 7–10 years. Seizures in BOEC usually feature visual symptoms such as scotoma or fortifications (brightly colored spots or lines) or amaurosis (blindness or impairment of vision). Convulsions involving one half the body, hemiconvulsions, or forced eye deviation or head turning are common. Younger patients typically experience symptoms similar to migraine with nausea and headache, and older patients typically complain of more visual symptoms. The EEG Electroencephalography is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp produced by the firing of neurons within the brain. In clinical contexts, EEG refers to the recording of the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of time, usually 20–40 minutes, as recorded from multiple electrodes placed on the scalp. In in BOEC shows spikes recorded from the occipital (back of head) regions. The EEG and genetic pattern suggest an autosomal dominant transmission as described by Ruben Kuzniecky et al.^[15] Lately, a group of epilepsies termed Panayiotopoulos syndrome Panayiotopoulos syndrome, otherwise known as early-onset benign partial epilepsy with occipital paroxysms, or idiopathic susceptibility to early-onset benign childhood seizures with electroencephalographic occipital spikes, is an epileptic syndrome estimated to affect between one in seven and one in ten children with epilepsy. It is idiopathic and^[16] that share some clinical features of BOEC but have a wider variety of EEG findings are classified by some as BOEC.

• Catamenial epilepsy (CE) is when seizures cluster around certain phases of a woman's menstrual cycle.

• Childhood absence epilepsy Childhood absence epilepsy , also known as pyknolepsy, is an idiopathic generalized epilepsy which occurs in otherwise normal children. The age of onset is between 4–10 years with peak age between 5–7 years. Children have absence seizures which although brief (~4–20 seconds), they occur frequently, sometimes in the hundreds per day. The (CAE) is an idiopathic generalized epilepsy that affects children between the ages of 4 and 12 years of age, although peak onset is around 5–6 years old. These patients have recurrent absence seizures Absence seizures are one of several kinds of seizures. These seizures are sometimes referred to as petit mal seizures, brief episodes of unresponsive staring, sometimes with minor motor features such as eye blinking or subtle chewing. The EEG finding in CAE is generalized 3 Hz spike and wave discharges. Some go on to develop generalized tonic-clonic seizures. This condition carries a good prognosis because children do not usually show cognitive decline or neurological deficits, and the seizures in the majority cease spontaneously with onging maturation.

• Dravet's syndrome Severe myoclonic epilepsy of infancy (SMEI). This syndrome was described by Charlotte Dravet, French psychiatrist and epileptologist (born July 14, 1936). Dravet described this syndrome while working at the Centre Saint Paul at the University of Marseille Marseille , formerly known as Massalia (from Greek: Μασσαλία), its second most-populous, behind Paris, with 852,395 residents as of 2007. It forms the third-largest urban area after those of Paris and Lyon with a population of 1,420,000 and the third-largest metropolitan area, also after those of Paris and Lyon, with a population of 1,530,0. At Centre Saint Paul one of her supervisors was Henri Gastaut’s who described the Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. She described this condition in 1978 ^[17] The condition is considered to be rare with approximately 450 cases described worldwide in 2005 (A review in 1992 found only 172 published cases.) This syndrome was renamed severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy in 1981. Defining clinical criteria were established in 1984. The condition is due either to mutations in the alpha subunit of the voltage dependent sodium channel or mutations in the gamma subunit of the GABA A receptor. Nosologically it is located in group 3 of the 1989 international classification of epilepies - the epileptic syndromes without a focal determination or which are generalised. The incidence is probably less than one in 40,000 population.

Severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy is distinguished from benign myoclonic epilepsy by its severity and must be differentiated from the Lennox-Gastaut syndrome Lennox-Gastaut syndrome , also known as Lennox syndrome, is a difficult-to-treat form of childhood-onset epilepsy that most often appears between the second and sixth year of life, and is characterized by frequent seizures and different seizure types; it is often accompanied by mental retardation and behavior problems and Doose’s myoclonic-astatic epilepsy. Onset is in the first year of life and symptoms peak at about 5 months of age with febrile hemiclonic or generalized status epilepticus. Boys are twice as often affected as girls. Prognosis is poor. Most cases are sporadic. Family history of epilepsy and febrile convulsions is present in around 25 percent of the cases.^[18]

• Frontal lobe epilepsy Frontal lobe epilepsy is the second most common type of epilepsy, after temporal lobe epilepsy. It is similar to temporal lobe epilepsy because it is a type of focal seizure, which means that the seizure starts in a focal area of the brain, commonly referred to as the focus. Frontal lobe epilepsy refers to cases in which the focus is located in, usually a symptomatic or cryptogenic localization-related epilepsy, arises from lesions causing seizures that occur in the frontal lobes of the brain. These epilepsies can be difficult to diagnose because the symptoms of seizures can easily be confused with nonepileptic spells and, because of limitations of the EEG, be difficult to "see" with standard scalp EEG Electroencephalography is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp produced by the firing of neurons within the brain. In clinical contexts, EEG refers to the recording of the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of time, usually 20–40 minutes, as recorded from multiple electrodes placed on the scalp. In.

• Juvenile absence epilepsy is an idiopathic generalized epilepsy with later onset that CAE, typically in prepubertal adolescence, with the most frequent seizure type being absence seizures. Generalized tonic-clonic seizures can occur. 3 Hz spike-wave or multiple spike discharges can be seen on EEG. Prognosis is mixed, with some patients going on to a syndrome that is poorly distinguishable from JME.

• Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy , also known as Janz syndrome, is a fairly common form of idiopathic generalized epilepsy, representing 5-10% of all epilepsies. This disorder typically first manifests itself between the ages of 12 and 18 with myoclonus occurring early in the morning. Most patients also have tonic-clonic seizures and many also have (JME) is an idiopathic generalized epilepsy that occurs in patients aged 8 to 20 years. Patients have normal cognition and are otherwise neurologically intact. The most common seizures are myoclonic jerks, although generalized tonic-clonic seizures and absence seizures may occur as well. Myoclonic jerks usually cluster in the early morning after awakening. The EEG reveals generalized 4–6 Hz spike wave discharges or multiple spike discharges. Interestingly, these patients are often first diagnosed when they have their first generalized tonic-clonic seizure later in life when they experience sleep deprivation (e.g., freshman year in college after staying up late to study for exams). Alcohol withdrawal can also be a major contributing factor in breakthrough seizures as well. The risk of the tendency to have seizures is lifelong; however, the majority have well-controlled seizures with anticonvulsant medication and avoidance of seizure precipitants.

• Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (LGS) is a generalized epilepsy that consists of a triad of developmental delay or childhood dementia, mixed generalized seizures, and EEG Electroencephalography is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp produced by the firing of neurons within the brain. In clinical contexts, EEG refers to the recording of the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of time, usually 20–40 minutes, as recorded from multiple electrodes placed on the scalp. In demonstrating a pattern of approximately 2 Hz "slow" spike-wave. Onset occurs between 2–18 years. As in West syndrome, LGS result from idiopathic, symptomatic, or cryptogenic causes, and many patients first have West syndrome West syndrome is an uncommon to rare and serious form of infantile spasms . It is named after the English physician, William James West (1793-1848), who first described it in an article published in The Lancet in 1841. Other names for it are "Generalized Flexion Epilepsy", "Infantile Epileptic Encephalopathy", "Infantile. Authorities emphasize different seizure types as important in LGS, but most have astatic seizures (drop attacks), tonic seizures, tonic-clonic seizures, atypical absence seizures, and sometimes, complex partial seizures. Anticonvulsants are usually only partially successful in treatment.

• Ohtahara Syndrome is a rare but severe form of epilepsy syndrome combined with cerebral palsy Cerebral refers to the cerebrum, which is the affected area of the brain , and palsy refers to disorder of movement. Cerebral palsy is caused by damage to the motor control centers of the developing brain and can occur during pregnancy, during childbirth or after birth up to about age three and characterised with frequent seizures which typically start in the first few days of life. Sufferers trend to be severely disabled and their lives very short (they are unlikely to reach adulthood).

• Primary reading epilepsy is a reflex epilepsy Reflex Epilepsy is the cognomen to seizures which are generated by a person’s acuteness to sensor stimulation caused by the environment. Possibly the best-known type of reflex epilepsy to the general public is photosensitive epilepsy classified as an idiopathic localization-related epilepsy. Reading in susceptible individuals triggers characteristic seizures.^[19]

• Progressive myoclonic epilepsies define a group of symptomatic generalized epilepsies characterized by progressive dementia Dementia is a serious loss of cognitive ability in a previously unimpaired person, beyond what might be expected from normal aging. It may be static, the result of a unique global brain injury, or progressive, resulting in long-term decline due to damage or disease in the body. Although dementia is far more common in the geriatric population, it and myoclonic seizures. Tonic-clonic seizures may occur as well. Diseases usually classified in this group are Unverricht-Lundborg disease, myoclonus epilepsy with ragged red fibers (MERRF syndrome), Lafora disease, neuronal ceroid lipofucinosis, and sialdosis.

• Rasmussen's encephalitis is a symptomatic localization-related epilepsy that is a progressive, inflammatory lesion affecting children with onset before the age of 10. Seizures start as separate simple partial or complex partial seizures and may progress to epilepsia partialis continuata (simple partial status epilepticus). Neuroimaging shows inflammatory encephalitis on one side of the brain that may spread if not treated. Dementia and hemiparesis are other problems. The cause is hypothesized to involve an immulogical attack against glutamate receptors, a common neurotransmitter in the brain.^[20]

• Symptomatic localization-related epilepsies Symptomatic localization-related epilepsies are divided by the location in the brain of the epileptic lesion, since the symptoms of the seizures are more closely tied to the brain location rather than the cause of the lesion. Tumors, atriovenous malformations, cavernous malformations, trauma, and cerebral infarcts can all be causes of epileptic foci in different brain regions.

• Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), a symptomatic localization-related epilepsy, is the most common epilepsy of adults who experience seizures poorly controlled with anticonvulsant medications. In most cases, the epileptogenic region is found in the midline (mesial) temporal structures (e.g., the hippocampus, amygdala, and parahippocampal gyrus). Seizures begin in late childhood and adolescence. Most of these patients have complex partial seizures sometimes preceded by an aura, and some TLE patients also suffer from secondary generalized tonic-clonic seizures. If the patient does not respond sufficiently to medical treatment, epilepsy surgery may be considered.

• West syndrome is a triad of developmental delay, seizures termed infantile spasms, and EEG demonstrating a pattern termed hypsarrhythmia. Onset occurs between 3 months and 2 years, with peak onset between 8–9 months. West syndrome may arise from idiopathic, symptomatic, or cryptogenic causes. The most common cause is tuberous sclerosis. The prognosis varies with the underlying cause. In general most surviving patients remain with significant cognitive impairment and continuing seizures and may evolve to another eponymic syndrome, Lennox-Gastaut syndrome.

Causes

The diagnosis of epilepsy usually requires that the seizures occur spontaneously. Nevertheless, certain epilepsy syndromes require particular precipitants or triggers for seizures to occur. These are termed reflex epilepsy. For example, patients with primary reading epilepsy have seizures triggered by reading. Photosensitive epilepsy can be limited to seizures triggered by flashing lights. Other precipitants can trigger an epileptic seizure in patients who otherwise would be susceptible to spontaneous seizures. For example, children with childhood absence epilepsy may be susceptible to hyperventilation. In fact, flashing lights and hyperventilation are activating procedures used in clinical EEG to help trigger seizures to aid diagnosis. Finally, other precipitants can facilitate, rather than obligately trigger, seizures in susceptible individuals. Emotional stress, sleep deprivation, sleep itself, heat stress, alcohol and febrile illness are examples of precipitants cited by patients with epilepsy. Notably, the influence of various precipitants varies with the epilepsy syndrome.^[21]. Likewise, the menstrual cycle in women with epilepsy can influence patterns of seizure recurrence. Catamenial epilepsy is the term denoting seizures linked to the menstrual cycle.^[22]

There are different causes of epilepsy that are common in certain age groups.

• During the neonatal period and early infancy the most common causes include hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathies, CNS infections,trauma,congenital CNS abnormalities and metabolic disorders.
• During late infancy and early childhood, febrile seizures are very common. There may be other causes like CNS infections and trauma.
• During childhood well defined epilepsy syndromes are generally seen.
• During adolescence and adulthood,the causes are more likely to be secondary to any CNS lesion and idiopathic epilepsies are less common. Other causes associated with these age groups are trauma,CNS infections,brain tumours,illicit drug use and alcohol withdrawal.
• In older adults, cerebrovascular disease is a very common cause. other causes are CNS tumours, trauma and other degenerative diseases that are common to the older age group like alzheimers.

^[23]

Pathophysiology

Mutations in several genes have been linked to some types of epilepsy. Several genes that code for protein subunits of voltage-gated and ligand-gated ion channels have been associated with forms of generalized epilepsy and infantile seizure syndromes.^[24] Several ligand-gated ion channels have been linked to some types of frontal and generalized epilepsies. One speculated mechanism for some forms of inherited epilepsy are mutations of the genes which code for sodium channel proteins; these defective sodium channels stay open for too long thus making the neuron hyper-excitable. Glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter, may thereby be released from these neurons in large amounts which—by binding with nearby glutamatergic neurons—triggers excessive calcium (Ca²⁺) release in these post-synaptic cells. Such excessive calcium release can be neurotoxic to the affected cell. The hippocampus, which contains a large volume of just such glutamanergic neurons (and NMDA receptors, which are permeable to Ca²⁺ entry after binding of both sodium and glutamate), is especially vulnerable to epileptic seizure, subsequent spread of excitation, and possible neuronal death. Another possible mechanism involves mutations leading to ineffective GABA (the brain's most common inhibitory neurotransmitter) action. Epilepsy-related mutations in some non-ion channel genes have also been identified.

Epileptogenesis is the process by which a normal brain develops epilepsy after an insult. One interesting finding in animals is that repeated low-level electrical stimulation to some brain sites can lead to permanent increases in seizure susceptibility: in other words, a permanent decrease in seizure "threshold." This phenomenon, known as kindling (by analogy with the use of burning twigs to start a larger fire) was discovered by Dr. Graham Goddard in 1967. It is important to note that these "kindled" animals do not experience spontaneous seizures. Chemical stimulation can also induce seizures; repeated exposures to some pesticides have been shown to induce seizures in both humans and animals. One mechanism proposed for this is called excitotoxicity. The roles of kindling and excitotoxicity, if any, in human epilepsy are currently hotly debated.

Other causes of epilepsy are brain lesions, where there is scar tissue or another abnormal mass of tissue in an area of the brain.

The complexity of understanding what seizures are have led to considerable efforts to use computational models of epilepsy to both interpret experimental and clinical data, as well as guide strategies for therapy.

Management

Epilepsy is usually treated with medication prescribed by a physician; primary caregivers, neurologists, and neurosurgeons all frequently care for people with epilepsy. However, it has been stressed that accurate differentiation between generalized and partial seizures is especially important in determining the appropriate treatment.^[25] In some cases the implantation of a stimulator of the vagus nerve, or a special diet can be helpful. Neurosurgical operations for epilepsy can be palliative, reducing the frequency or severity of seizures; or, in some patients, an operation can be curative.

Responding to a seizure

In most cases, the proper emergency response to a generalized tonic-clonic epileptic seizure is simply to prevent the patient from self-injury by moving him or her away from sharp edges, placing something soft beneath the head, and carefully rolling the person into the recovery position to avoid asphyxiation. In some cases the person may seem to start snoring loudly following a seizure, before coming to. This merely indicates that the person is beginning to breathe properly and does not mean he or she is suffocating. Should the person regurgitate, the material should be allowed to drip out the side of the person's mouth by itself. If a seizure lasts longer than 5 minutes, or if the seizures begin coming in 'waves' one after the other - then Emergency Medical Services should be contacted immediately. Prolonged seizures may develop into status epilepticus, a dangerous condition requiring hospitalization and emergency treatment.

Objects should never be placed in a person's mouth by anybody - including paramedics - during a seizure as this could result in serious injury to either party. Despite common folklore, it is not possible for a person to swallow their own tongue during a seizure. However, it is possible that the person will bite their own tongue, especially if an object is placed in the mouth.

With other types of seizures such as simple partial seizures and complex partial seizures where the person is not convulsing but may be hallucinating, disoriented, distressed, or unconscious, the person should be reassured, gently guided away from danger, and sometimes it may be necessary to protect the person from self-injury, but physical force should be used only as a last resort as this could distress the person even more. In complex partial seizures where the person is unconscious, attempts to rouse the person should not be made as the seizure must take its full course. After a seizure, the person may pass into a deep sleep or otherwise they will be disoriented and often unaware that they have just had a seizure, as amnesia is common with complex partial seizures. The person should remain observed until they have completely recovered, as with a tonic-clonic seizure.

After a seizure, it is typical for a person to be exhausted and confused (this is known as post-ictal state). Often the person is not immediately aware that they have just had a seizure. During this time one should stay with the person - reassuring and comforting them - until they appear to act as they normally would. Seldom during seizures do people lose bladder or bowel control. In some instances the person may vomit after coming to. People should not be allowed to wander about unsupervised until they have returned to their normal level of awareness. Many patients will sleep deeply for a few hours after a seizure - this is common for those having just experienced a more violent type of seizure such as a tonic-clonic. In about 50% of people with epilepsy, headaches may occur after a seizure. These headaches share many features with migraines, and respond to the same medications.

It is helpful if those present at the time of a seizure make note of how long and how severe the seizure was. It is also helpful to note any mannerisms displayed during the seizure. For example, the individual may twist the body to the right or left, may blink, might mumble nonsense words, or might pull at clothing. Any observed behaviors, when relayed to a neurologist, may be of help in diagnosing the type of seizure which occurred.

Pharmacologic treatment

Main article: Anticonvulsant

The mainstay of treatment of epilepsy is anticonvulsant medications. Often, anticonvulsant medication treatment will be lifelong and can have major effects on quality of life. The choice among anticonvulsants and their effectiveness differs by epilepsy syndrome. Mechanisms, effectiveness for particular epilepsy syndromes, and side effects differ among the individual anticonvulsant medications. Some general findings about the use of anticonvulsants are outlined below.

Availability- Currently there are 20 medications approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the use of treatment of epileptic seizures in the US: carbamazepine (common US brand name Tegretol), clorazepate (Tranxene), clonazepam (Klonopin), ethosuximide (Zarontin), felbamate (Felbatol), fosphenytoin (Cerebyx), gabapentin (Neurontin), lacosamide (Vimpat), lamotrigine (Lamictal), levetiracetam (Keppra), oxcarbazepine (Trileptal), phenobarbital (Luminal), phenytoin (Dilantin), pregabalin (Lyrica), primidone (Mysoline), tiagabine (Gabitril), topiramate (Topamax), valproate semisodium (Depakote), valproic acid (Depakene), and zonisamide (Zonegran). Most of these appeared after 1990.

Medications commonly available outside the US but still labelled as "investigational" within the US are clobazam (Frisium) and vigabatrin (Sabril). Medications currently under clinical trial under the supervision of the FDA include retigabine, brivaracetam, and seletracetam.

Other drugs are commonly used to abort an active seizure or interrupt a seizure flurry; these include diazepam (Valium, Diastat) and lorazepam (Ativan). Drugs used only in the treatment of refractory status epilepticus include paraldehyde (Paral), midazolam (Versed), and pentobarbital (Nembutal).

Some anticonvulsant medications do not have primary FDA-approved uses in epilepsy but are used in limited trials, remain in rare use in difficult cases, have limited "grandfather" status, are bound to particular severe epilepsies, or are under current investigation. These include acetazolamide (Diamox), progesterone, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH, Acthar), various corticotropic steroid hormones (prednisone), or bromide.

Effectiveness - The definition of "effective" varies. FDA-approval usually requires that 50% of the patient treatment group had at least a 50% improvement in the rate of epileptic seizures. About 20% of patients with epilepsy continue to have breakthrough epileptic seizures despite best anticonvulsant treatment.^[6][7].

Safety and Side Effects - 88% of patients with epilepsy, in a European survey, reported at least one anticonvulsant related side effect.^[26] Most side effects are mild and "dose-related" and can often be avoided or minimized by the use of the smallest effective amount. Some examples include mood changes, sleepiness, or unsteadiness in gait. Some anticonvulsant medications have "idiosyncratic" side effects that can not be predicted by dose. Some examples include drug rashes, liver toxicity (hepatitis), or aplastic anemia. Safety includes the consideration of teratogenicity (the effects of medications on fetal development) when women with epilepsy become pregnant.

Principles of Anticonvulsant Use and Management - The goal for individual patients is, no seizures and minimal side effects, and the job of the physician is to aid the patient to find the best balance between the two during the prescribing of anticonvulsants. Most patients can achieve this balance best with monotherapy, the use of a single anticonvulsant medication. Some patients, however, require polypharmacy; the use of two or more anticonvulsants.

Serum levels of AEDs can be checked to determine medication compliance, to assess the effects of new drug-drug interactions upon previous stable medication levels, or to help establish if particular symptoms such as instability or sleepiness can be considered a drug side effect or are due to different causes. Children or impaired adults who may not be able to communicate side effects may benefit from routine screening of drug levels. Beyond baseline screening, however, trials of recurrent, routine blood or urine monitoring show no proven benefits and may lead to unnecessary medication adjustments in most older children and adults using routine anticonvulsants.^[27][28]

If a person's epilepsy cannot be brought under control after adequate trials of two or three (experts vary here) different drugs, that person's epilepsy is generally said to be medically refractory. A study of patients with previously untreated epilepsy demonstrated that 47% achieved control of seizures with the use of their first single drug. 14% became seizure free during treatment with a second or third drug. An additional 3% became seizure-free with the use of two drugs simultaneously.^[29] Other treatments, in addition to or instead of, anticonvulsant medications may be considered by those people with continuing seizures.

Surgical treatment

Epilepsy surgery is an option for patients whose seizures remain resistant to treatment with anticonvulsant medications who also have symptomatic localization-related epilepsy; a focal abnormality that can be located and therefore removed. The goal for these procedures is total control of epileptic seizures ^[30], although anticonvulsant medications may still be required.^[31]

The evaluation for epilepsy surgery is designed to locate the "epileptic focus" (the location of the epileptic abnormality) and to determine if resective surgery will affect normal brain function. Physicians will also confirm the diagnosis of epilepsy to make sure that spells arise from epilepsy (as opposed to non-epileptic seizures). The evaluation typically includes neurological examination, routine EEG, Long-term video-EEG monitoring, neuropsychological evaluation, and neuroimaging such as MRI, Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET). Some epilepsy centers use intracarotid sodium amobarbital test (Wada test), functional MRI or Magnetoencephalography (MEG) as supplementary tests.

Certain lesions require Long-term video-EEG monitoring with the use of intracranial electrodes if noninvasive testing was inadequate to identify the epileptic focus or distinguish the surgical target from normal brain tissue and function. Brain mapping by the technique of cortical electrical stimulation or Electrocorticography are other procedures used in the process of invasive testing in some patients.

The most common surgeries are the resection of lesions like tumors or arteriovenous malformations which, in the process of treating the underlying lesion, often result in control of epileptic seizures caused by these lesions.

Other lesions are more subtle and feature epilepsy as the main or sole symptom. The most common form of intractable epilepsy in these disorders in adults is temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis, and the most common type of epilepsy surgery is the anterior temporal lobectomy, or the removal of the front portion of the temporal lobe including the amygdala and hippocampus. Some neurosurgeons recommend selective amygdalahippocampectomy because of possible benefits in postoperative memory or language function. Surgery for temporal lobe epilepsy is effective, durable, and results in decreased health care costs.^[32][33]. Despite the efficacy of epilepsy surgery, some patients decide not to undergo surgery owing to fear or the uncertainty of having a brain operation.

Palliative surgery for epilepsy is intended to reduce the frequency or severity of seizures. Examples are callosotomy or commissurotomy to prevent seizures from generalizing (spreading to involve the entire brain), which results in a loss of consciousness. This procedure can therefore prevent injury due to the person falling to the ground after losing consciousness. It is performed only when the seizures cannot be controlled by other means. Multiple subpial transection can also be used to decrease the spread of seizures across the cortex especially when the epileptic focus is located near important functional areas of the cortex. Resective surgery can be considered palliative if it is undertaken with the expectation that it will reduce but not eliminate seizures.

Hemispherectomy involves removal or a functional disconnection of most or all of one half of the cerebrum. It is reserved for people suffering from the most catastrophic epilepsies, such as those due to Rasmussen syndrome. If the surgery is performed on very young patients (2–5 years old), the remaining hemisphere may acquire some rudimentary motor control of the ipsilateral body; in older patients, paralysis results on the side of the body opposite to the part of the brain that was removed. Because of these and other side effects it is usually reserved for patients who have exhausted other treatment options.

Other treatment

Ketogenic diet- a high fat, low carbohydrate diet developed in the 1920s, largely forgotten with the advent of effective anticonvulsants, and resurrected in the 1990s. The mechanism of action is unknown. It is used mainly in the treatment of children with severe, medically-intractable epilepsies.

While far from a cure, operant-based biofeedback based on conditioning of EEG waves has some experimental support (see Professional practice of behavior analysis). Overall the support is based on a handful of studies reviewed by Barry Sterman^[34]. These studies report a 30% reduction in weekly seizures.

Electrical stimulation ^[35]- methods of anticonvulsant treatment with both currently approved and investigational uses. A currently approved device is vagus nerve stimulation (VNS). Investigational devices include the responsive neurostimulation system and deep brain stimulation.

Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS)- The VNS (US manufacturer = Cyberonics) consists of a computerized electrical device similar in size, shape and implant location to a heart pacemaker that connects to the vagus nerve in the neck. The device stimulates the vagus nerve at pre-set intervals and intensities of current. Efficacy has been tested in patients with localization-related epilepsies demonstrating that 50% of patients experience a 50% improvement in seizure rate. Case series have demonstrated similar efficacies in certain generalized epilepsies such as Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Although success rates are not usually equal to that of epilepsy surgery, it is a reasonable alternative when the patient is reluctant to proceed with any required invasive monitoring, when appropriate presurgical evaluation fails to uncover the location of epileptic foci, or when there are multiple epileptic foci.

Responsive Neurostimulator System (RNS) (US manufacturer Neuropace) consists of a computerized electrical device implanted in the skull with electrodes implanted in presumed epileptic foci within the brain. The brain electrodes send EEG signal to the device which contains seizure-detection software. When certain EEG seizure criteria are met, the device delivers a small electrical charge to other electrodes near the epileptic focus and disrupt the seizure. The efficacy of the RNS is under current investigation with the goal of FDA approval.

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) (US manufacturer Medtronic) consists of a computerized electrical device implanted in the chest in a manner similar to the VNS, but electrical stimulation is delivered to deep brain structures through depth electrodes implanted through the skull. In epilepsy, the electrode target is the anterior nucleus of the thalamus. The efficacy of the DBS in localization-related epilepsies is currently under investigation.

Noninvasive surgery- The use of the Gamma Knife or other devices used in radiosurgery are currently being investigated as alternatives to traditional open surgery in patients who would otherwise qualify for anterior temporal lobectomy.^[36]

Avoidance therapy- Avoidance therapy consists of minimizing or eliminating triggers in patients whose seizures are particularly susceptible to seizure precipitants (see above). For example, sunglasses that counter exposure to particular light wavelengths can improve seizure control in certain photosensitive epilepsies.^[37]

Warning systems- A seizure response dog is a form of service dog that is trained to summon help or ensure personal safety when a seizure occurs. These are not suitable for everybody and not all dogs can be so trained. Rarely, a dog may develop the ability to sense a seizure before it occurs.^[38] Development of electronic forms of seizure detection systems are currently under investigation.

Seizure prediction based devices Seizure prediction based on long-term EEG recordings is presently being evaluated as a new way to stop epileptic seizures before they appear clinically.

Alternative or complementary medicine- A number of systematic reviews by the Cochrane Collaboration into treatments for epilepsy looked at acupuncture,^[39] psychological interventions,^[40] vitamins^[41] and yoga^[42] and found there is no reliable evidence to support the use of these as treatments for epilepsy.

The Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center says that Dimethylglycine dietary supplement (DMG) will "enhance oxygen utilization during hypoxia, reduce lactic acid build-up in the blood during stressful events," and reduce the number of seizures experienced in epilepsy.^[43]

Epidemiology

Disability-adjusted life year for epilepsy per 100,000 inhabitants in 2002. no data less than 50 50-72.5 72.5-95 95-117.5 117.5-140 140-162.5 162.5-185 185-207.5 207.5-230 230-252.5 252.5-275 more than 275

Epilepsy is one of the most common of the serious neurological disorders.^[44] Genetic, congenital, and developmental conditions are mostly associated with it among younger patients; tumors are more likely over age 40; head trauma and central nervous system infections may occur at any age. The prevalence of active epilepsy is roughly in the range 5–10 per 1000 people. Up to 5% of people experience non febrile seizures at some point in life; epilepsy's lifetime prevalence is relatively high because most patients either stop having seizures or (less commonly) die of it. Epilepsy's approximate annual incidence rate is 40–70 per 100,000 in industrialized countries and 100–190 per 100,000 in resource-poor countries; socioeconomically deprived people are at higher risk. In industrialized countries the incidence rate decreased in children but increased among the elderly during the three decades prior to 2003, for reasons not fully understood.^[45]

Beyond symptoms of the underlying diseases that can be a part of certain epilepsies, people with epilepsy are at risk for death from four main problems: status epilepticus (most often associated with anticonvulsant noncompliance), suicide associated with depression, trauma from seizures, and sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) ^[46][47][48] Those at highest risk for epilepsy-related deaths usually have underlying neurological impairment or poorly controlled seizures; those with more benign epilepsy syndromes have little risk for epilepsy-related death.

The NICE National Sentinel Audit of Epilepsy-Related Deaths^[49], led by "Epilepsy Bereaved" drew attention to this important problem. The Audit revealed; "1,000 deaths occur every year in the UK as a result of epilepsy" and most of them are associated with seizures and 42% of deaths were potentially avoidable".^[50]

Certain diseases also seem to occur in higher than expected rates in people with epilepsy, and the risk of these "comorbidities" often varies with the epilepsy syndrome. These diseases include depression and anxiety disorders, migraine and other headaches, infertility and low sexual libido. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) affects three to five times more children with epilepsy than children in the general population. ^[51] Epilepsy is prevalent in autism.^[52]

History

The word epilepsy is derived from the Ancient Greek ἐπιληψία epilēpsía, which was from ἐπιλαμβάνειν epilambánein "to take hold of", which in turn was combined from ἐπί epí "upon" and λαμβάνειν lambánein "to take".^[53] In the past, epilepsy was associated with religious experiences and even demonic possession. In ancient times, epilepsy was known as the "Sacred Disease" because people thought that epileptic seizures were a form of attack by demons, or that the visions experienced by persons with epilepsy were sent by the gods. Among animist Hmong families, for example, epilepsy was understood as an attack by an evil spirit, but the affected person could become revered as a shaman through these otherworldly experiences.^[54]

However, in most cultures, persons with epilepsy have been stigmatized, shunned, or even imprisoned; in the Salpêtrière, the birthplace of modern neurology, Jean-Martin Charcot found people with epilepsy side-by-side with the mentally retarded, those with chronic syphilis, and the criminally insane. In Tanzania to this day, as with other parts of Africa, epilepsy is associated with possession by evil spirits, witchcraft, or poisoning and is believed by many to be contagious.^[55] In ancient Rome, epilepsy was known as the Morbus Comitialis ('disease of the assembly hall') and was seen as a curse from the gods.

Stigma continues to this day, in both the public and private spheres, but polls suggest it is generally decreasing with time, at least in the developed world; Hippocrates remarked that epilepsy would cease to be considered divine the day it was understood.^[56]

Society and culture

Legal implications

Many jurisdictions forbid certain activities to persons suffering from epilepsy. The most commonly prohibited activities involve operation of vehicles or machinery, or other activities in which continuous vigilance is required. However, there are usually exceptions for those who can prove that they have stabilized their condition. Those few whose seizures do not cause impairment of consciousness, have a lengthy aura preceding impairment of consciousness, or whose seizures only arise from sleep, may be exempt from such restrictions, depending on local laws. There is an ongoing debate in bioethics over who should bear the burden of ensuring that an epilepsy patient does not drive a car or fly an airplane.

Automobiles

Main article: Epilepsy and driving

In the U.S., people with epilepsy can drive if their seizures are controlled with treatment and they meet the licensing requirements in their state. The amount of time someone needs to be free of seizures varies in different states, but is most likely to be between three months and a year.^[57][58] The majority of the 50 states place the burden on patients to report their condition to appropriate licensing authorities so that their privileges can be revoked where appropriate. A minority of states place the burden of reporting on the patient's physician. After reporting is carried out, it is usually the driver's licensing agency that decides to revoke or restrict a driver's license.

In the UK, it is the responsibility of the patients to inform the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA) if they have epilepsy.^[59] The DVLA rules are quite complex,^[60] but in summary,^[61] those that continue to have seizures or who are within 6 months of medication change may have their licence revoked. A person must be seizure free of an 'awake' seizure for 12 months (or had only 'sleep' seizures for 3 years or more) before they can apply for a licence.^[62] A doctor who becomes aware that a patient with uncontrolled epilepsy is continuing to drive has, after reminding the patient of their responsibility, a duty to break confidentiality and inform the DVLA. The doctor should advise the patient of the disclosure and the reasons why their failure to notify the agency obliged the doctor to act.

Aircraft

Persons with a history of epilepsy are usually allowed to obtain a flying license in the interest of avoiding discrimination. In the United States, a history of epilepsy is rarely a disqualifier for the medical certification of pilots.^[63]

Notable people with epilepsy

Main article: List of people with epilepsy

Many notable people, past and present, have carried the diagnosis of epilepsy. In many cases, their epilepsy is a footnote to their accomplishments; for some, it played an integral role in their fame. Historical diagnoses of epilepsy are not always certain; there is controversy about what is considered an acceptable amount of evidence in support of such a diagnosis.

Research

Important investigators of epilepsy

• Jean-Martin Charcot
• John Hughlings Jackson
• Hans Berger
• Herbert Jasper
• Wilder Penfield
• H. Houston Merritt
• William G. Lennox
• Fritz E. Dreifuss
• Gregory L. Holmes

See also

• Abdominal epilepsy
• Breakthrough seizure
• Convulsion
• Epilepsy in animals
• Epilepsy Phenome/Genome Project
• Generalised epilepsy
• ISAS (Ictal-Interictal SPECT Analysis by SPM)
• Jacksonian seizure
• Non-epileptic seizures
• On the Sacred Disease
• Photosensitive epilepsy
• Post-traumatic epilepsy
• Postictal state
• Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures
• Pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy
• Seizure
• Seizure response dog
• Seizure trigger
• Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy
• Temporal lobe epilepsy

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42. ^ Ramaratnam S, Sridharan K (2000). "Yoga for epilepsy". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD001524. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001524. PMID 10908505.
43. ^ "Dimethylglycine". About Herbs, Botanicals & Other Products. Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center. December 8, 2009. http://www.mskcc.org/mskcc/html/69204.cfm.
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53. ^ OED. Retrieved 8 September 2009.
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56. ^ Hippocrates quotes
57. ^ Epilepsy Foundation Driving and You - Can you drive an automobile if you have epilepsy?.
58. ^ Epilepsy Foundation Driver Information by State
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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Epilepsy

• Epilepsy at the Open Directory Project
• Hippocrates: On the Sacred Disease
• Columbia Comprehensive Epilepsy Center

Pathology of the nervous system, primarily CNS (G04–G47, 323–349) Inflammation Brain Encephalitis (Viral encephalitis, Herpesviral encephalitis) · Cavernous sinus thrombosis · Brain abscess (Amoebic) Spinal cord Myelitis: Poliomyelitis · Demyelinating disease (Transverse myelitis) · Tropical spastic paraparesis · Epidural abscess Both/either Encephalomyelitis (Acute disseminated) Meningoencephalitis Brain/ encephalopathy Degenerative Extrapyramidal and movement disorders Basal ganglia disease: Parkinsonism (PD, Postencephalitic, NMS) · PKAN · Tauopathy (PSP) · Striatonigral degeneration · Hemiballismus · HD · OA Dyskinesia: Dystonia (Status dystonicus, Spasmodic torticollis, Meige's, Blepharospasm) · Chorea (Choreoathetosis) · Myoclonus (Myoclonic epilepsy) · Akathesia Tremor (Essential tremor, Intention tremor) · Restless legs · Stiff person Dementia Tauopathy: Alzheimer's (Early-onset) · Frontotemporal dementia/Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (Pick's, Dementia with Lewy bodies) Multi-infarct dementia Mitochondrial disease Leigh's Demyelinating autoimmune (Multiple sclerosis, Neuromyelitis optica, Schilder's disease) · hereditary (Adrenoleukodystrophy, Alexander, Canavan, Krabbe, ML, PMD, VWM, MFC, CAMFAK syndrome) · Central pontine myelinolysis · Marchiafava-Bignami disease · Alpers' disease Episodic/ paroxysmal Seizure/epilepsy Focal · Generalised · Status epilepticus · Myoclonic epilepsy Headache Migraine (Familial hemiplegic) · Cluster · Tension Cerebrovascular TIA (Amaurosis fugax, Transient global amnesia) Stroke (MCA, ACA, PCA, Foville's, Millard-Gubler, Lateral medullary, Weber's, Lacunar stroke) Sleep disorders Insomnia · Hypersomnia · Sleep apnea (Obstructive, Ondine's curse) · Narcolepsy · Cataplexy · Kleine-Levin · Circadian rhythm sleep disorder (Advanced sleep phase syndrome, Delayed sleep phase syndrome, Non-24-hour sleep-wake syndrome, Jet lag) CSF Intracranial hypertension (Hydrocephalus/NPH, Idiopathic intracranial hypertension) · Cerebral edema · Intracranial hypotension Other Brain herniation · Reye's · Hepatic encephalopathy · Toxic encephalopathy Spinal cord/ myelopathy Syringomyelia · Syringobulbia · Morvan's syndrome · Vascular myelopathy (Foix-Alajouanine syndrome) · Spinal cord compression Both/either Degenerative SA Friedreich's ataxia · Ataxia telangiectasia MND UMN only: PLS · PP · HSP LMN only: PMA · PBP (Fazio-Londe, Infantile progressive bulbar palsy) · SMA (SMN-linked, Kennedy disease, SMAX2, DSMA1) both: ALS : CNS (,,,,,,,,,,,)/// (,,,,,)//,/, ,drug(////////)

Seizures and epilepsy (G40-G41, 345) Basics Seizure types · Seizure trigger · Breakthrough seizure · Postictal state · Epileptogenesis · Aura (warning sign) Treatments Antiepileptics · (for list) · Electroencephalography (diagnosis method) · Epileptologist Related disorders Todd's paresis · Landau-Kleffner syndrome Epilepsy organizations Epilepsy Foundation (USA) · Epilepsy Toronto · Epilepsy Research UK · Epilepsy Action Australia · Citizens United for Research in Epilepsy · Comprehensive Epilepsy Center · David Lewis Centre · Epilepsy Action · National Society for Epilepsy Other Epilepsy in animals · Epilepsy and driving Seizure types Epilepsy types Partial/focal Seizures: Simple partial · Complex partial · Jacksonian seizure Epilepsy: Temporal lobe epilepsy · Frontal lobe epilepsy · Rolandic epilepsy · Nocturnal epilepsy Generalised Tonic-clonic · Absence seizure · Atonic seizure · Automatism · Benign familial neonatal · Lennox-Gastaut · West Status epilepticus Epilepsia partialis continua · Complex partial status epilepticus Myoclonic epilepsy Progressive myoclonic epilepsy (Dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy, Unverricht-Lundborg disease, MERRF syndrome, Lafora disease) · Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy Non-epileptic seizures Febrile seizure · Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures : CNS (,,,,,,,,,,,)/// (,,,,,)//,/, ,drug(////////)

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